Overview
Teotihuacan was the largest city in the pre-Columbian Americas, located in a sub-valley of the Basin of Mexico, 40 kilometers northeast of modern-day Mexico City. At its peak around 450 CE, the city covered more than 20 square kilometers and housed an estimated 125,000-200,000 people, making it one of the largest cities in the world at the time.
Despite its immense size and influence, we do not know what the city's inhabitants called themselves, what language they spoke, or who their rulers were. The name "Teotihuacan" (meaning "the place where the gods were created" or "birthplace of the gods") was given by the Aztecs, who encountered the already-ruined city centuries after its collapse.
Key Facts
- Location: 19.6925°N, 98.8438°W, State of Mexico
- Active Period: c. 100 BCE - 550 CE
- Peak Population: 125,000-200,000 people
- Total Area: 20+ square kilometers
- Pyramid of the Sun: 3rd largest pyramid in the world by volume
- UNESCO Status: World Heritage Site (inscribed 1987)
- Writing System: Unknown - few inscriptions survive
Major Monuments
Pyramid of the Sun
Base: 225m x 225m, Height: 65m. Third largest pyramid in the world. Built over a sacred cave. Contains over 1 million cubic meters of material.
Pyramid of the Moon
Base: 150m x 130m, Height: 43m. Located at the north end of the Avenue. Contains sacrificial burials with exotic animals.
Temple of the Feathered Serpent
Also called Temple of Quetzalcoatl. Elaborate sculptural facade. Contains over 200 sacrificial burials.
Avenue of the Dead
Main ceremonial axis, 40m wide, 2.5km long. Originally extended 5km. Lined with platforms and complexes.
Pyramid of the Sun
The Pyramid of the Sun is the most imposing structure at Teotihuacan and one of the largest in Mesoamerica:
| Measurement |
Specification |
Comparison |
| Base Length |
225 meters (738 feet) |
Similar to Great Pyramid of Giza (230m) |
| Height |
65 meters (213 feet) |
Less than half the Great Pyramid (147m) |
| Volume |
~1 million cubic meters |
3rd largest pyramid by volume |
| Construction Date |
c. 100 CE |
2,500+ years after Giza |
| Orientation |
15.5° north of west |
Aligned to sunset on August 12 |
The Sacred Cave
In 1971, archaeologists discovered a natural cave beneath the Pyramid of the Sun. The cave extends 100 meters and ends in a cloverleaf-shaped chamber. Evidence suggests the cave was sacred before the pyramid was built and may have been the original reason for building the city here. In Mesoamerican cosmology, caves were entrances to the underworld and places of origin.
Urban Planning
Teotihuacan was a meticulously planned city, laid out on a precise grid:
City Grid
- Orientation: The entire city is oriented 15.5° east of north
- Avenue of the Dead: Main north-south axis, originally 5 km long
- Cross-avenue: East-west axis divides the city into quarters
- Apartment compounds: Over 2,000 residential compounds, each housing 60-100 people
- Standardized units: Buildings use consistent measurement units
Residential Compounds
Multi-family Housing
Unlike many ancient cities where elites lived in palaces while commoners lived in slums, Teotihuacan had standardized apartment compounds for all classes. Each compound had:
- Central courtyard with altars
- Rooms arranged around the courtyard
- Drainage systems
- Wall paintings (many preserved)
- Workshop areas for craft production
Multi-ethnic Neighborhoods
Archaeological evidence reveals distinct ethnic neighborhoods:
- Oaxacan Barrio: Zapotec immigrants from Oaxaca with their own burial practices
- Merchants' Barrio: Gulf Coast traders with distinctive pottery
- Maya presence: Evidence of Maya visitors and possibly residents
Millon, R. (1973). "Urbanization at Teotihuacan, Mexico." University of Texas Press.
The Mystery of the Builders
Perhaps the greatest mystery of Teotihuacan is that we do not know who built it:
Archaeological Evidence
What We Know
- Multi-ethnic: Population included people from across Mesoamerica
- No royal portraits: Unlike Maya, no depictions of individual rulers
- Limited writing: Few inscriptions survive, writing system not deciphered
- Deliberate anonymity: Rulers may have been intentionally anonymous
- Collective governance? Some suggest council rule rather than individual kings
Proposed Identities
Theories on Who Built Teotihuacan
- Proto-Nahua speakers: Ancestors of the Aztecs and related groups
- Totonac: Suggested by some early Spanish sources
- Otomi: Long-term inhabitants of the Basin of Mexico
- Multi-ethnic coalition: City may have had no single ethnic identity
Language Mystery
The language(s) spoken at Teotihuacan remain unknown:
- Nahuatl: Possible but unconfirmed
- Totonac: Suggested by colonial sources
- Otomi: Present in the region
- Multi-lingual: Multiple languages likely spoken in different neighborhoods
Astronomical Alignments
The 15.5° Orientation
The entire city is oriented 15.5° east of true north - a deliberate choice with astronomical significance:
August 12 Alignment
The Avenue of the Dead aligns with the sunset on August 12. This date is significant because:
- 260 days before August 12 is December 21 (winter solstice)
- 52 days after is October 4 (close to autumn equinox)
- The date may mark the beginning of the Mesoamerican calendar
- August 12, 3114 BCE is the Maya Long Count creation date
Pecked-Cross Markers
Hundreds of "pecked-cross" petroglyphs have been found at Teotihuacan and related sites:
- Double-circle designs: Concentric circles with cross-shaped patterns
- Surveying tools: May have been used to lay out the city grid
- Astronomical markers: Some align with celestial events
- Calendar connection: Circles often have 260 or 365 holes
Aveni, A.F. (2001). "Skywatchers: A Revised and Updated Version of Skywatchers of Ancient Mexico." University of Texas Press.
Human Sacrifice and Ritual
Archaeological excavations have revealed extensive evidence of human sacrifice at Teotihuacan:
Temple of the Feathered Serpent
Mass Burial
Over 200 individuals were sacrificed and buried beneath the Temple of the Feathered Serpent around 200 CE. Victims include:
- Warriors with their hands bound behind their backs
- Individuals wearing shell jewelry and greenstone ornaments
- Some victims may have been foreign captives
- Others appear to have been local elites
Pyramid of the Moon
Excavations from 1998-2004 revealed multiple sacrificial deposits:
- Burial 6: 12 individuals with jaguar, puma, wolf, and eagle remains
- Burial 2: Single individual with 18 greenstone figurines and obsidian objects
- Exotic animals: Evidence of jaguars and eagles from distant regions
Collapse and Legacy
The Fall of Teotihuacan (c. 550-650 CE)
Teotihuacan collapsed dramatically around 550-650 CE:
- Deliberate destruction: Ceremonial buildings were systematically burned
- Internal conflict: Evidence suggests internal revolt rather than external invasion
- Selective targeting: Only elite and ceremonial buildings were burned
- Population decline: City shrank but was not completely abandoned
- Continued occupation: Reduced population lived among the ruins for centuries
Aztec Veneration
The Aztecs, arriving 600+ years after the collapse, viewed Teotihuacan as sacred:
- Pilgrimage site: Aztec rulers made pilgrimages to the ruins
- Mythological significance: Believed the current sun was created here
- Legitimacy: Aztec rulers claimed connection to Teotihuacan's builders
- Name origin: "Teotihuacan" is an Aztec (Nahuatl) name
Sugiyama, S. (2005). "Human Sacrifice, Militarism, and Rulership: Materialization of State Ideology at the Feathered Serpent Pyramid, Teotihuacan." Cambridge University Press.
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